Spanish Conflict free essay sample

The film Spanglish shows numerous instances of contentions. The film showed struggle in sentimental connections, in child rearing choices, solid way of life, and the one I chose for center around, social clash. Deborah Clasky, a spouse and mother of two kids, employs a poor Mexican servant, Flor Moreno. At the point when the two families move in together for the mid year into a Malibu sea shore house the contention of impacting societies and qualities start. Flor, who was surrendered by her significant other, required one final open door for change so as to give her little girl a superior life and future. Flor, who doesn't talk any English, chooses to emigrate from Mexico to the United States. So as to raise Cristina appropriately she required however much of her very own security culture as could reasonably be expected so she moved through Texas, simply 34% Hispanic, to Los Angeles, 48% Hispanic. Flor felt she was directly back at home in Los Angeles. For a long time Flor and Cristina didn't Venture outside their new network. We will compose a custom paper test on Spanish Conflict or on the other hand any comparable subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page That was until she was employed as a maid by Deborah Clasky. Deborah Clasky a previous specialist, and now a housewife frequently showed negative conduct that was agitating to the two families. Deborah was fixated on excellence and physical wellness. Deborah was continually pushing for her overweight girl, Bernice, to shed pounds. She would reveal to Bernice she truly could manage without the sandwich she was eating. She went similarly as buying another closet for Bernice that was a size excessively little. Disclosing to Bernice that she realizes she can lose the weight and she would fit into the garments in a matter of moments. After the two families move in together in the Malibu sea shore house, Cristina gets presented to the American lifestyle. Deborah chooses to take her on a day trip without approaching Flor for consent. She left a note, written in English for Flor. The note expressed that she was taking her little girl for the afternoon. Cristina came back with pink and blue hair streaks leaving Flor angry. Deborah didn't think it was a serious deal to invest energy with Cristina regardless of someone else's opinion. Flor suspected something. Flor had Cristina make an interpretation of a note to provide for Deborah disclosing to her that it was not alright to take her little girl without her consent. In another episode, John, Deborah’s spouse offers to pay the children for ocean glass found on the sea shore. Cristina finds a plentiful measure of ocean glass and John needs to pay her in excess of 600 dollars. Once more, Flor is incensed that John consented to pay that measure of cash without talking with her first. The last episode that goaded Flor was when Deborah helped Cristina acquire a grant to a non-public school. Deborah imparted the news to Cristina before illuminating Flor. This left Flor in a position where it was hard to state no. Deborah gave Cristina a jewelry on her first day of school and expressed it was from her, Bernice, and Flor. Flor would not connect herself with the blessing and unmistakably disclosed to her little girl the blessing was not from her. Flor was feeling her legacy and culture sneak away as her little girl was carrying on with the American lifestyle. Flor revealed to her cousin that she didn't know whether she was stressed that her girl would feel odd in the new school or increasingly stressed that she would feel equivalent to them. When Flor doesn't appear at her Grandmothers party, Flor acknowledges the time has come to roll out an improvement. The main thing Flor could offer her little girl was her character and legacy. With her little girls new American way of life she didn't have anything left to offer her. She quit her place of employment and expelled Cristina from the tuition based school. She asked Christina a troublesome inquiry. She asked her, if what she needs for herself was to become somebody not quite the same as her? I accept the contention could have been dealt with all the more adequately. Deborah ought to have talked with Flor before imparting her plans to Cristina. For instance, Deborah ought to have inquired as to whether she would consider sending Cristina to a tuition based school before introducing the proposal to Cristina. Deborah imparting the plan to Cristina first put Flor in a troublesome situation to state no. Speaking with Flor first would have additionally been an answer for both the excursion and ocean glass occurrence. It would have demonstrated that Deborah regarded Flor and her choices when it came to raising Cristina. Deborah and Flor had the four factors that are viewed as a contention. Two individuals are reliant; they each need something structure the other. The two gatherings fault the other or criticize them for causing the issue. At least one of the gatherings is irate or sincerely furious. The parties’ practices are influencing their relationship with one another and their associations with others (Dana, 2000). The connection between the two families dwindled to nothing following the contention of impacting societies and qualities.

Short History of Mass Comm Free Essays

A Short History of Mass Communication Theory Paradigm results is a hypothesis that sums up and is predictable with every well established actuality and this regularly prompts a change in outlook a central, even radical, reevaluating of what we accept to be valid (Kuhn, 1970). Mass correspondence hypothesis is a particulary open to such a changes in outlook because of 3 variables : 1. Advances in innovation or the presentation of new media. We will compose a custom exposition test on Short History of Mass Comm or then again any comparative subject just for you Request Now 2. Calls for control or regulatiin of these new advances require. 3. As a nation commited to ensuring popular government and social pluralism. These elements created 4 significant times of mass correspondence hypothesis A. The period of mass society hypothesis B. The period of logical point of view C. The period of restricted impacts of hypothesis D. The period of social hypothesis A. THE ERA OF MASS SOCIETY THEORY During the second 50% of nineteenth century and the principal many years of twentieth century mass course paper and magazines, films, talkies, and radio all came to unmistakable quality right now. The country’s serene rustic nature was starting to slip further into history, Industrialization and urbanization is spread. The media should have been controlled to secure customary qualities and to forestall comparative maltreatment at home. The subsequent worldview was mass society hypothesis, the possibility that the media are ruining impacts that subvert the social request and that â€Å"average† individuals are unprotected against their impact. The key suspicion of this worldview is communicated in the hypodermic needle hypothesis or enchantment slug hypothesis. Mass society hypothesis is a case of fantastic hypothesis, one intended to depict and clarify all parts of a given wonder. Media had impacts, frequently great ones. B. THE ERA OF THE SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE Scientist verified that various elements drove a few people to be affected and others not (Lowery DeFleur, 1995) The specialist had advantage of advances in review explore, surveying, and other social logical strategies created and advocated by Austrian settler Paul Lazarsfeld. The most effective method to refer to Short History of Mass Comm, Essay models

Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence Essay Example for Free

Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence Essay Thomas Paine’s Common Sense and Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence are two significant and well known enticing archives in American history. The two archives were written in 1776 about a similar subject (Famighetti 512; Independence Hall Association 1999). Be that as it may, as one peruses the various archives one would watch the distinction in tone and styles embraced by each creator to communicate their thoughts. As powerful works the two presents the present issues that they were confronting, both give reasons with respect to why the issue was happening and the two presents an answer for the issue. The subject of the two reports was Great Britain’s relationship with the American settlements. The two records were composed when Great Britain was compelling the American states to pay absurd and unreasonable expenses to her (Perry 431). Paine had felt that Great Britain was mishandling its capacity while Jefferson contended that Great Britain was a dictator. At that point each creator continued to count their own reasons why they think it was so. Taking into account the present conditions, the two creators had felt that the settlements should liberate itself from Britain’s rule. In imparting his thoughts, Thomas Paine’s Common Sense was composed more toward an article enticing exposition that meant to cause the individuals to get mindful of what was truly going on among Britain and the American settlements. In the initial passage Paine obviously concede that what he was going to state may not be the general conviction or perspectives on his perusers, â€Å" maybe the opinions contained in the accompanying pages are not yet adequately chic to acquire them general favor†( Independence Hall Association1999 ). He was just introducing his feeling with respect to a specific circumstance. Then again, Jefferson’s works was at that point a source of inspiration as though the individuals definitely comprehended what was happening. The presumption that he was tending to individuals who definitely realized the genuine circumstance was in the announcement, â€Å"When, over the span of human occasions, it gets vital for one individuals to break down the political groups which have associated them with another† (Fameghetti 512), as though suggesting that specific occasions of which the individuals knew about is presently driving them to isolate from Britain. As it were, Common Sense was teaching the individuals while The Declaration of Independence was to a great extent inspiring the now â€Å"educated† individuals. Thomas Paine’s talk was simply voicing his sentiments and educating the individuals regarding the genuine circumstance, his manner of speaking was a greater amount of quiet influence as though he was awakening the general American open from a long rest of lack of interest and obliviousness when he sees that the Americans were in â€Å"a long propensity for not thinking a thing wrong† which â€Å"gives it a shallow appearance of being right†( Independence Hall Association 1999 ) . Paine at that point finished his report with a recommendation of what the American individuals ought to do. Jefferson then again, embraced a progressively sure, emphatic and with a need to keep moving tone in his work, with the objective of mobilizing more supporters and adherents to the reason for freedom and encouraging them to make a quick activity. This can be upheld by the way that when the report was considered and perused, not all Americans consented to the partition (Perry 431). However Jefferson utilized the â€Å"We hold these facts to act naturally evident†, utilizing the word â€Å"we† to imply that he was expecting that all Americans was sharing his perspectives and with this respect he was assuming the job as the voice of the American individuals (Fameghetti 512). In contrast to Paine, Jefferson finished the archive not with a proposal however with an intense declaration for the need of detachment (Fameghetti 513). Also, the association of the two records was extraordinary. Jefferson took a somewhat immediate and unexpected methodology in imparting his perspectives. He promptly present his thoughts first and foremost scarcely any sections refering to John Locke’s â€Å"inalienable rights† as the primary reason for his contention and absent a lot of wavering bolstered his view on partition by posting Britain’s flaws. The subject of his works was more to legitimize American demonstrations of resistance with the goal that different countries, for example, Spain and France from which they want to pick up help for their motivation won't think about their progressive activities as illicit demonstrations of defiance (Maier 43). Paine, then again, received a narrating group in introducing his perspectives. He made careful arrangements in giving foundation data about his subject (Independence Hall Association 1999). He inspected everything about good models and introduced them as legitimate clarifications on the side of his perspectives on why it is better for a country to be free of Britain. At the point when one analyzes every archive, one can reason that in Common Sense, Paine went about as an enticing teacher, whose job was just that of a man who had the errand of stirring the enthusiasm of his perusers to favor his perspectives while Jefferson acted more as a functioning head of insubordination, whose fundamental objective was to move the individuals to make prompt activity in light of their conviction that Great Britain ought not administer over them. Works Cited Famighetti, Robert. The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1996. New Jersey: Funk and Wagnalls Corporation, 1995. Freedom Hall Association. â€Å"Common Sense by Thomas Paine†. 1999. US History Organization Website. Gotten to April 4, 2008 http://www. ushistory. organization/paine/conventional/singlehtml. htm Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997. Perry, Marvin. A History of the World. New York: Houghton and Mifflin, 1988.

Role of Trade Unions in 2011

Presentation Clyde E. Dankert, an educator in financial matters, in his articles plans what he calls an exhaustive meaning of a worker's organization. He characterizes a worker's guild as â€Å"a proceeding with association of representatives set up to secure or improving, through aggregate activity, the financial and societal position of its members.’’Advertising We will compose a custom report test on Role of Trade Unions in 2011 explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More From his definition, the reason for the development of worker's organizations is to ensure and improve the monetary and economic wellbeing of the individuals (Sinha, 2010). It is an association of laborers whose principle objective is to direct the relations among laborers and businesses Trade associations like most associations appreciate a lawful character nature; can go into concurrences for the benefit of their individuals and can sue or be sued. This likewise infers forces and commi tments just reach out to the association itself yet not to the individuals and authorities. This report will investigate on the accompanying subjects: top explanations behind worker's organization participation, member’s desires from such enrollment, impacts of enactment on worker's guilds since 1996 and the impacts of Human Resource rehearses on worker's organization enrollment. The decrease of worker's organization enrollment has been a quality of numerous nations. In Britain for instance, in 1970, 58% of laborers were worker's guild individuals with more than 70% of worker’s pay rates set by aggregate bartering; by 2004 under 30% of laborers were patrons. Purposes behind Union Membership Union laws, for example, the National Labor Relations Act otherwise called the Wagner Act, saves the privilege of laborers to unionize. Worker's organizations play out the accompanying exercises: give advantages to individuals (for example legitimate exhortation), aggregate barterin g, implementing strikes and advancement of political action through taking an interest in enactment to help their individuals. The principle factors driving worker's organization enrollment for portrayal are, among others: wellbeing at working environment, get higher compensation, arrangement for employer stability, lawful portrayal and showing signs of improvement business benefits. An individual laborer have small haggling power comparative with that of the business, the best activity to cure this is to join an association which makes an incredible aggregate move through negative marks against an employer.Advertising Looking for report on business financial aspects? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Need for equivalent treatment by the laborers at the work environment and assurance from separations and preferences requires unionism (Bailey et al., 2010). Worker's guilds propel the businesses to give government assistance admin istrations and retirement benefits for their representatives, these goes about as a motivator for organization enrollment Unionism gives a feeling of belongingness which is a lot of wanted by laborers; impacts from part collaborators likewise spurs unionism. Worker's organizations give legitimate portrayal to laborers confronting lawful activity henceforth shielding individuals from misuse. To control the issue of irreconcilable circumstance, associations are relied upon to have a discernable personality from that of businesses and the state In an exploration, it was built up that over 60%t of all respondents were of the supposition that working environment wellbeing and getting better advantages were noteworthy factors in enrollment choices. Over half of the respondents said getting more significant compensations and expanding professional stability were significant factors in their choices to join associations. The survey recommended that representatives appraised poor administrat ion as less huge. US Department of Labor through the agency of work measurements report that organization enrollment has declined since 1983. For instance, in 2010, 12.5% of representatives were patrons down from 20.1% in 1983 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). In Australia Unmet request is a significant factor for Australian associations. Neglected interest is representatives in non-association work environments ready to join an association whenever gave an opportunity. As indicated by the Australian Worker Representation and Participation overview, neglected interest is most noteworthy among low pay workers and youthful laborers (Shirts and Slogans, 2010). It is generally perceived that through the arrangements of efficiency arrangements and usage of better working strategies, businesses with associations display higher wages and pay rates contrasted with ventures that need worker's organizations. Desires from Union Membership Trade associations play out their jobs autonomous of businesses. Be that as it may, to viably play out its obligations, associations are required to build up working relations with bosses. As to the reasons why laborers join associations, worker's guilds are required to arrange, in the interest of their individuals, concurrences with businesses on issues of pay and conditions. For instance, pay rates and wages in Australia increased at a higher rate in 2007 than in 2006, worker's organizations assuming a critical job (Watts, 2001). Worker's organizations are normal give individuals lawful and monetary counsel, instruction and preparing offices and purchaser benefits. Worker's organizations additionally go to gatherings with their members.Advertising We will compose a custom report test on Role of Trade Unions in 2011 explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Trade associations are known to speak to their ashes outside the working environment. For example, Trade associations connect with governments, offices and different associations for arrangements in meeting their member’s advantages. For instance, association pioneers in United States are griping that the president has not concentrated on work creation and different plans proposed to take their individuals back to business. Following the weakening working conditions reports, laborers anticipate viable observing of working conditions at working environments by the worker's guilds. Guided by the worker’s want for self-articulation, worker's organizations are in the bleeding edge in giving a stage to self-articulation. Polished skill, this is normal from all associations; the quality and viability of instruction and preparing gave by the Trade Union College should be improved. Associations have for as far back as decade included themselves effectively in governmental issues. Associations have put assets in political battles and offer gifts to government up-and-comers. As per the Washington Post, association gifts toward the start of 2 011 dropped by about 40% when contrasted with 2009 (the Washington Post, 2011). Effects of Legislative Amendments since 1996 on Trade Union Activities Trade associations are reeling from administrative changes which impactsly affect the associations. Australia’s Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904, gives that ‘’no worker would be oppressed or exploited by managers as a result of their organization enrollment, no business will excuse any representative from work by reason simply of the way that the representative is an official or individual from an organization.’’ These arrangements were improved in 1914 through changes (Bailey et al., 2010). The selection of a shut shop approach in worker's guilds accommodate obligatory enrollment of all representatives to a similar worker's guild, thus reinforcing the association. This has the constructive outcome of urging more specialists to join worker's guilds. The presentation of Australian Workplace Agreem ents otherwise called AWA by the Howard Government was, as indicated in terms of professional career associations, an endeavor to limit and sabotage the bartering intensity of worker's guilds. AWAs and individual understandings prohibited the worker's organizations. Worker's organizations cautioned their individuals to marking of the AWAs as they would bring disparity between the representatives and businesses. Reactions of the AWAs prompted the presentation of â€Å"fairness test† in May 2007 (Balnave et al., 2009).Advertising Searching for report on business financial aspects? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More The legislature of 1996-2007 revoked government association inclination arrangements forestalling the consideration of grants and understandings however presented arrangements of deliberate unionism in the Workplace Relations and Other Legislation Amendment Bill 1996. These arrangements were consolidated into the Workplace Relations Act 1996 which held the counter segregation assurances. The presentation of willful unionism which gave opportunity not to relate greatly affected organization enrollment. The then clergyman, Peter Reith, affirmed that laborers would reserve an option to join or not to join an association and limitations to association section to work environments forced (O’Neill, 2010). The Workplace Relations Act (Cwlth) 1996 and resulting revisions to the Workplace Relations Act (Workchoices) 2005, expect businesses to lead and record customary execution. This denies excusal of a worker without legitimate explanation (Budhwar, Varma and Denisi, 2008). The Howard Government through the Workplace Relations Act 1996 (Cwlth), as revised in 2005 (Work Choices Act 2005) decreased the impact of worker's guilds by lessening the impact of all in all decided working conditions and reduced specialist privileges under honors. This decrease of impact of worker's organization definitely prompted a fall in enrollment numbers. Following the execution of the Workplace Relations Act (1996) the value of the wages framework was feeling the squeeze by means of the association and non-association confirmed and singular understandings. This was additionally inebriated with the fruitless endeavor by the then government to illegalize design dealing. This was planned to lessen the exchange union’s intensity of bartering with normal case as a premise. Taking into account this, the Australian Council of Trade Unions managed requests for pay increase in abundance of $20 (Watts, 2001). The Howard Government favored voluntaristic game plans over work environment portrayal

Preventing Prescription Drug Abuse

Preventing Prescription Drug Abuse Addiction Drug Use Opioids Print Preventing Abuse of Prescription Drugs By Carol Eustice facebook Carol Eustice is a writer covering arthritis and chronic illness, who herself has been diagnosed with both rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Learn about our editorial policy Carol Eustice Updated on February 04, 2020 Echo / Getty Images More in Addiction Drug Use Opioids Cocaine Heroin Marijuana Meth Ecstasy/MDMA Hallucinogens Prescription Medications Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery Although most patients use medications as directed, abuse and addiction to prescription drugs are public health problems for many Americans. However, addiction rarely occurs among those who use medications as prescribed; the risk for addiction exists when medications are used in ways other than as prescribed. Patients, pharmacists, and healthcare providers all play a role in preventing and detecting prescription drug abuse. Pain and Opiophobia When treating pain, health care providers have long wrestled with a dilemma: How to adequately relieve a patients suffering while avoiding the potential for that patient to become addicted to pain medication? Many doctors underprescribe painkillers because they overestimate the potential for patients to become addicted to medications such as morphine and codeine. Although these drugs carry a heightened risk of addiction, research has shown that providers concerns that patients will become addicted to pain medication are largely unfounded. This fear of prescribing opioid pain medications is known as opiophobia. Most patients who have prescribed opioids for pain, even those undergoing long-term therapy, do not become addicted. The few patients who do develop rapid and marked tolerance for an addiction to opioids usually have a history of psychological problems or prior substance abuse. In fact, studies have shown that the abuse potential of opioid medications is generally low in healthy, nondrug-abusing volunteers. One study found that only 4 out of about 12,000 patients who were given opioids for acute pain became addicted. In a study of 38 chronic pain patients, most of whom received opioids for 4 to 7 years, only 2 became addicted, and both had a history of drug abuse. The issues of underprescription of opioids and the suffering of millions of patients who dont receive adequate pain relief has led to the development of guidelines for pain treatment. This may help bring an end to underprescribing, but alternative forms of pain control are still needed. NIDA-funded scientists continue to search for new ways to control pain and to develop new pain medications that are effective but dont have the potential for addiction. Assessing Prescription Drug Abuse With Simple Questions Have you ever felt the need to cut down on your use of prescription drugs?Have you ever felt annoyed by remarks of your friends or loved ones made about your use of prescription drugs?Have you ever felt guilty or remorseful about your use of prescription drugs?Have you ever used prescription drugs as a way to get going or to calm down? Role of Patients There are several ways that patients can prevent prescription drug abuse. When visiting the doctor, provide a complete medical history and a description of the reason for the visit to ensure that the doctor understands the complaint and can prescribe appropriate medication.If a doctor prescribes medicine, follow the directions for use carefully and learn about the effects that the drug could have, especially during the first few days during which the body is adapting to the medication.Be aware of potential interactions with other drugs.Do not increase or decrease doses or abruptly stop taking a drug without consulting a healthcare provider first.Never use another persons prescription. Role of Pharmacists Pharmacists play a role in preventing prescription drug misuse and abuse by: Explaining how to take medication appropriately.Providing clear information about the effects the medication may have.Providing advice about any possible drug interactions. They can also help prevent prescription fraud or diversion by looking for false or altered prescriptions. Role of Health Care Providers Health care providers are in a unique position not only to prescribe needed medications appropriately  but also: Identify prescription drug abuse when it exists.Help the patient recognize the problem.Set goals for recovery, and seek appropriate treatment when necessary. Screening for any type of substance abuse can be incorporated into routine history taking with questions about what prescriptions and over-the-counter drugs the patient is taking and why. Screening also can be performed if a patient presents with specific symptoms associated with the problem use of a substance. Over time, providers should note any rapid increases in the amount of a drug needed â€" which may indicate the development of tolerance â€" or frequent requests for refills before the quantity prescribed should have been used. They should also be alert to the fact that those addicted to prescription medications may engage in doctor shopping, moving from provider to provider in an effort to get multiple prescriptions for the drug they abuse. Preventing or stopping prescription drug abuse is an important part of patient care. However, health care providers should not avoid prescribing painkillers, if they are needed.

Smart Home Systems Security Risks Assignment Paper - 2200 Words

Smart Home Systems Security Risks Assignment Paper (Research Proposal Sample) Content: Smart Home Systems Security RisksStudents Name:Institutional Affiliation:Smart home systems security risksIntroductionHome automation system allows homeowners access and control devices in their homes from any location in the globe by using a mobile device. In home automation, almost everything including appliances, cooling system, lights, and heating system are linked to a controllable network that can be operated from a remote area. When it comes to home security, the home automation system includes the house locks, every window and door, surveillance cameras and smoke detectors among others. Home automation is generally a move towards the Internet of Things (IoT) where each item get assigned an IP address which enables it to be supervised and accessed from a remote distance ( Farhan Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 2009). Home automation allows homeowners to manage their smart home both from within and from a far distance.In the move to achieve energy efficien t and smart homes, among the greatest barriers which have been identified is the achievement of security in IoT environments. An investigation needs to be done to make it straight on how to the risks associated with use and misuse of both end-users and customers information can be handled and how the integration of security improvement measures in the design can be done. In this research, I am going to analyze the risks associated with home systems security and methodologies for mitigating the risks. Some of the probable dangers related to home automation include systems threats and chances of occurrence and potential impacts. The risk analysis will be done basing on a qualitative approach called the Information Security Risk Analysis (ISRA) where the risks of the system are exposed and reviewed basing on availability, integrity and the confidentiality of the systemBackground and related researchA recently conducted research indicated that two among eight people living in Sweden hav e the feeling that they are not well informed with the knowledge and control of how they use energy (Flick Morehouse, 2011). The research further indicated that among ten people, four of them are willing to increase their awareness and gain better control on their rate of consumption. The appropriate solution was identified as the provision of feedback on energy consumption to every householder through the smart home automation system. Research indicates that householder can reduce up to 20% of their energy consumption through such feedback (Farhan Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 2009). In home automation, a network of communication extends the IoT by including daily item and sensors. Home automation is becoming an attraction to many suppliers, providers of infrastructure, and both software and hardware third party vendors. Due to the increasing number of home automation users, the challenge of complexity and heterogeneity of the largely integrated devices and services has be come rampant; this has necessitated the development of appliances which are connected to software to counter these challenges.A joint research conducted on some of the leading industrial actors dealing with home automation which is a popular interface in the automation system of smart homes, it was found that it is possible to control the smart devices in a transparent manner real time. Municipalities, property owners and other stakeholders in the third party category can also observe the consumption rate of energy and remotely regulate electronic equipment found in the building (Meyer, 2008). The background of this study is prompted by the fact that in an ecosystem that is largely integrated, understanding the dangers associated with the use of information on end users such as tenants, customers and partners are not clear.Related workDue to the increased computerization of homes and the increase in the use of smart televisions, and management of energy systems in buildings there ha s been an increase in the computer security threats the impacts they have on home residents ought to be assessed. Research shows that the competences of the home-based technology make it easy for novel attacks and also allow traditional attacks to have new results. The risks posed by cloud computing in the management of home recourse extends to the sharing of data, external household services and the home; this is through core indicators which have a relation to risks, cost, efficiency, and trust (Meyer, 2008). Smart home environments which are occupied by human users have a high risk of potential sensitivity data regarding traffic.The main source of risk in the home automation system was is the risk connected with software components mostly the mobile devices and the smartphone applications. Other risks connected with software components include the connected devices, API, Cloud server and In-house gateway. The software weaknesses show the risk of attacks which take advantage of the vulnerabilities. Some common examples of the software vulnerability in the home automation include; the irregular deployment of the authentication procedure which leads to the risk of unauthorized access to the security system. The second example is inadequate access to control policy and configuration; this leads to the risk of unauthorized functions modification. Insufficient accountability and logging settings can cause the system events to remain unregistered thus leading to huge problems in handling bug fixing. The risk of insufficient settings on confidentiality and authentication within different connected sensors relates to problems with critical information which can be spread between the in-house gateway and devices. The insufficient settings risk includes commands having the instructions either to turn on or off electronic devices like the surveillance cameras and alarms (Flick Morehouse, 2011). The risks that are connected to hardware commonly involves theft, the s abotage of SHAS devices and servers and manipulationSecurity wise, human actors stand for a link which is weak in all computer-based systems of information. Research indicates that human form a limitation that is difficult to handle in analyzing the computerization systems. This challenge posed by humans is also a confirmed case when it comes to SHAS. The most common human risk is the deployment of passwords which are not strong enough; such risks can be mitigated by the use of verification tools and policies on enforcement passwords. When user accounts are configured of all defaults, they become a weak point for attempts by hackers. Since a major characteristic of automation in the smart home is the regulatory controls system appliances which in most cases cannot be managed by the use of ordinary computers but through the use of tablets and phones, from the security point of view, this has the implication that various new areas of contact between the potential attackers and the sy stem have been created. An example of an effective attack is the attack on an end user when he/she keys in a web page that is security flawed and includes malicious software that can easily exploit the vulnerability in the computer or tablet of the end user (Elsenpeter Velte, 2003). Thus, the attacker can complete software on the system which has been compromised using the malicious software which allows the attacker to secretly manage and control the SHAS.Research has indicated that the main part of the SHAS is the users privacy, this happens where the systems architecture verification happens in one way, thus necessitating the accountability in taking the entire home environment in the examination. The SHAS is dynamic and poses unpredictable effects in the IoT development system. This increases the stake of users regarding privacy implications mostly because of the stiff competition in the SHAS providers for business advantages, for instance, through getting more information abo ut the rate of energy consumption of customers (Elsenpeter Velte, 2003). Consequently, some customers may end up giving private information about the activities in their home-based environment. This sensitive information can be misused by actors who have selfish intentions.Aims and objectivesThe aims and objectives of this research are:I. To identify the risks associated with smart home systemsII. To investigate how the risks in the smart home systems security can be mitigatedIII. To identify why Home Automation Systems are such attractive targets for attackersMethodologyThe research will employ different methodologies to gather the necessary information for analysis. Some of the chosen methodologies include the use of interviews to get qualitative information about the homeowners, end users and other stakeholders experience and feelings about the SHAS. The preferred type of interviewing method to use is the one which takes the semi-structured format; this will enable the researcher to formulate a guide to the key areas which needs coverage in the interviewing process, this format will also allow the interviewer to write down the questions to ask (Fujimori et.al, 2008).. The types of questions to be used in the interview will be open ended to gain detailed information.The second method will be the use questionnaires which will allow the researcher to collect comparable and standardized information from the people using home automation systems. Questionnaires will enable the researcher to get both qualitative and quantitative data; also, parameters like the awareness level on the issue of risks associated with smart home systems can be estimated. Open-ended questions will be used since they will allow the respondent to give detailed information including his/her attitudes and feelings about the SHAS; thus, the researcher will ge...

Joy Luck Club Film - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 683 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/07/31 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: Joy Luck Club Essay Did you like this example? In the joy luck club film there were four stories all dealing with different teaching methods different emotions. All the mothers and children had something emotional happen to them. Thats where the diverse parenting styles come in. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Joy Luck Club Film" essay for you Create order The first story would be Ai-Mei and Rose the way Ai-Mei raised rose was that she wanted the best for her. For her not to be treated without respect she wanted her to have dignity, she wasnt really strict she just always had great advice for rose because when she realized that she was showing the same similarities as her grandmother not knowing her worth but after hearing her grandmother story she finally stood up to her american husband Ted. The second story would be Lindos and Waverly. Lindo was taught to be humble and bite her tongue and hide her thoughts until she feel at a disadvantage she learned this strategy in china while being in a loveless marriage. She later realized her worth so she walked away from her marriage so she wouldnt disappoint her family. When Lindo later had a child she taught her daughter the same way. Lindo had very strict parenting method she wanted her to be perfect she always wanted the best for her child but waverly felt as though her mother was being to controlling. The third story would be about Suyuan and June , June takes her mothers place in the joy luck club after she dies , June is American she grew up different from the rest mostly feeling misunderstood and frustrated with herself because she did not know what she wanted to do as she was growing up. June felt like she went unnoticed for years by her mother because they didnt connect like the rest of the daughters and their mothers , after a long emotion conversation June began to realize that her Suyuan knew that her daughter was different she just didnt know how to accept it , knowing her mothers story helped her realize that they were both stronger than they thought they could ever be. Ying-ying and lena ying-ying married young, it was a happy marriage but it got really bad after they had their baby, her husband would cheat on her he would use the baby. Ying ying felt like he loved the baby more than her so she kills the baby it really hurt but ying ying felt like it would hurt him how he hurt her. She then had a second daughter lena shes really smart because her mother raised her to know her worth. The story that stood out to me the most would have to be lindo and waverly story because lindo pushed waverly to do better and always be the best. My mother always tell me i need you to do this that and the third in order to be here at a certain age i always feel pressured even to this day and thats kinda how me and waverly relate to each other both our parents only worrying about how our failure would affect them pride wise and not looking at it as if we fail on our own and dont feel bad about it it would only make us want to do better. The values that the mother wants to pass on would be in order to do best you have to push yourself none stop, you have to know how to talk to people for you to get far in life. The love in this story really wasnt being expressed because lindo really didnt know how to show it she was always strict and worrying about being controlling waverly felt like her mother didnt love her. The parenting relationship between the mother and the daughter i would have to say obedience lindo wanted her daughter to always listen to her no matter what. How waverly copes with her american identity is always being first best at everything because thats how she was raised in society. For example when they were sitting at the dinner table she made a smart remark about how rose paper didnt sound sophisticated.

Biography of Richard Nixon, 37th U.S. President

Richard M. Nixon (January 9, 1913–April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. Prior to that, he was a U.S. senator from California and vice president under Dwight Eisenhower. As a result of his involvement in the Watergate scandal, a cover-up of illegal activities connected with his reelection committee, Nixon became the first and only U.S. president to resign from office. Fast Facts: Richard Nixon Known For: Nixon was the 37th president of the United States and the only president to resign from office.Also Known As: Richard Milhous Nixon, â€Å"Tricky Dick†Born:  January 9, 1913 in Yorba Linda, CaliforniaParents: Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous NixonDied:  April 22, 1994 in New York, New YorkEducation: Whittier College, Duke University Law SchoolSpouse:  Thelma Catherine Pat Ryan (m. 1940–1993)Children: Tricia, JulieNotable Quote: â€Å"People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I’m not a crook. I’ve earned everything I’ve got.† Early Life Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 19, 1913, to Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous Nixon in Yorba Linda, California. Nixon’s father was a rancher, but after his ranch failed he moved the family to Whittier, California, where he opened a service station and grocery store. Nixon grew up poor and was raised in a very conservative, Quaker household. Nixon had four brothers: Harold, Donald, Arthur, and Edward. Harold died of tuberculosis at age 23 and Arthur died at age 7 of tubercular encephalitis. Education Nixon was an exceptional student and graduated second in his class at Whittier College, where he won a scholarship to attend Duke University Law School in North Carolina. After graduating from Duke in 1937, Nixon was unable to find work on the East Coast and decided to move back to Whittier, where he worked as a small-town lawyer. Nixon met his wife, Thelma Catherine Patricia â€Å"Pat† Ryan, when the two played opposite one another in a community theater production. He and Pat were married on June 21, 1940, and had two children: Tricia (born in 1946) and Julie (born in 1948). World War II On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the U.S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor, ushering the United States into World War II. Shortly afterward, Nixon moved from Whittier to Washington D.C., where he took a job at the Office of Price Administration (OPA). As a Quaker, Nixon was eligible to apply for an exemption from military service. He was bored with his role at the OPA, however, so he applied to the Navy and joined in August 1942 at the age of 29. Nixon was stationed as a naval control officer in the South Pacific Combat Air Transport. While Nixon did not serve in a combat role during the war, he was awarded two service stars and a citation of commendation and was eventually promoted to the rank of lieutenant commander. Nixon resigned his commission in January 1946. Congressional Service In 1946, Nixon ran for a seat in the House of Representatives for the 12th Congressional District of California. To beat his opponent, five-term Democratic incumbent Jerry Voorhis, Nixon used a variety of smear tactics, insinuating that Voorhis had communist ties because he had once been endorsed by the labor organization CIO-PAC. Nixon won the election. Nixon’s tenure in the House of Representatives was notable for his anti-communist crusading. He served as a member of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), which was responsible for investigating individuals and groups with suspected ties to communism. Nixon was also instrumental in the investigation and conviction for perjury of Alger Hiss, an alleged member of an underground communist organization. Nixon’s aggressive questioning of Hiss at the HUAC hearing was central to securing Hiss’ conviction and won Nixon national attention. Wikimedia Commons   Nixon ran for a seat in the Senate in 1950. Once again, he used smear tactics against his opponent, Helen Douglas. Nixon was so overt in his attempt to tie Douglas to communism that he even had some of his flyers printed on pink paper. In response to Nixons smear tactics and his attempt to get Democrats to cross party lines and vote for him, a Democratic committee ran a full-page ad in several papers with a political cartoon of Nixon shoveling hay labeled â€Å"Campaign Trickery† into a donkey labeled Democrat. Under the cartoon was written, â€Å"Look at Tricky Dick Nixon’s Republican Record.† Despite the ad, Nixon went on to win the election—but the nickname Tricky Dick stuck with him. Run for Vice President When Dwight D. Eisenhower decided to run as the Republican Partys candidate for president in 1952, he needed a running mate. Nixon’s anti-communist position and strong base of support in California made him an ideal choice. During the campaign, Nixon was nearly removed from the ticket when he was accused of financial improprieties for allegedly using an $18,000 campaign contribution for personal expenses. In a televised address that became known as the â€Å"Checkers† speech delivered on September 23, 1952, Nixon defended his honesty and integrity. In a bit of levity, Nixon stated that there was one personal gift that he just wasnt going to return—a little Cocker Spaniel dog, whom his 6-year-old daughter had named Checkers. The speech was enough of a success to keep Nixon on the ticket. Vice Presidency After Eisenhower won the presidential election in November 1952, Nixon, now vice president, focused much of his attention on foreign affairs. In 1953, he visited several countries in the Far East. In 1957 he visited Africa, and in 1958 he visited Latin America. Nixon was also instrumental in helping push the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. In 1959, Nixon met with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in Moscow. In what became known as the â€Å"Kitchen Debate,† an impromptu argument erupted over the ability of each nation to provide good food and a good life to its citizens. The profanity-laced argument soon escalated as both leaders defended their countrys way of life. After Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in 1955 and a stroke in 1957, Nixon was called on to assume some of his high-level duties. At the time, there was no formal process for the transfer of power in the event of a presidential disability. Nixon and Eisenhower worked out an agreement that became the basis for the 25th Amendment to the Constitution, which was ratified on February 10, 1967. The amendment detailed the procedure for presidential succession in the event of the presidents incapacitation or death. Failed Presidential Run of 1960 After Eisenhower completed his two terms in office, Nixon launched his own bid for the White House in 1960 and easily won the Republican nomination. His opponent on the Democratic side was Massachusetts Sen. John F. Kennedy, who campaigned on the idea of bringing a new generation of leadership to the White House. The 1960 campaign was the first to make use of the new medium of television for advertisements, news, and policy debates. For the first time in American history, citizens were afforded the ability to follow the presidential campaign in real time. Bettmann Archive / Getty Images For the first debate, Nixon chose to wear little makeup, wore a badly selected gray suit, and came across looking old and tired compared to the younger and more photogenic Kennedy. The race remained tight, but Nixon eventually lost the election to Kennedy by 120,000 votes. Nixon spent the years between 1960 and 1968 writing a bestselling book, Six Crises, which recounted his role in six political crises. He also ran unsuccessfully for governor of California against Democratic incumbent Pat Brown. 1968 Election In November 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the office of the presidency and easily won re-election in 1964. In 1967, as the 1968 election approached, Nixon announced his own candidacy and easily won the Republican nomination. Faced with mounting disapproval ratings, Johnson withdrew as a candidate during the campaign. The new Democratic front-runner became Robert F. Kennedy, the younger brother of John. Wikimedia Commons   On June 5, 1968, Robert Kennedy was shot and killed following his victory in the California primary. Rushing now to find a replacement, the Democratic Party nominated Johnson’s vice president, Hubert Humphrey, to run against Nixon. Alabama Governor George Wallace had also joined the race as an independent. In another close election, Nixon won the presidency by 500,000 popular votes. Presidency Major domestic accomplishments during Nixons presidency included Neil Armstrongs and Buzz Aldrins historic walk on the moon in 1969; the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970; and the passage of the 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1971, which granted 18-year-olds the right to vote. Nixons focus on foreign relations had him initially escalating the Vietnam War as he implemented a controversial bombing campaign against the neutral nation of Cambodia to disrupt North Vietnamese supply lines. Later, however, Nixon was instrumental in withdrawing all combat units from Vietnam, and by 1973 he had ended mandatory military conscription. Fighting within Vietnam finally ceased when Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese in 1975. In 1972, with the help of his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, President Nixon and his wife Pat embarked on a week-long trip to China in order to establish diplomatic relations. Resentment between China and the U.S. had lingered following the Korean War, during which China had fought against U.S. forces. The visit marked the first time a U.S. president had visited the communist nation, which was then under the control of Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong. Nixons visit was an important step in improving relations between these two powerful nations. Watergate Scandal Nixon was reelected in 1972 in what is considered one of the largest landslide victories in U.S. history. Unfortunately, Nixon was willing to use any means necessary to ensure his re-election. On June 17, 1972, five men were caught breaking into the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., to plant listening devices. Nixon’s campaign staff believed the devices would provide information that could be used against Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern. While the Nixon administration initially denied involvement in the break-in, two young newspaper reporters for the Washington Post, Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, obtained information from a source known as â€Å"Deep Throat,† who became instrumental in tying the administration to the break-in. Nixon remained defiant throughout the Watergate scandal, and in a televised statement on November 17, 1973, he infamously stated, â€Å"People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I’m not a crook. I’ve earned everything I’ve got.† During the investigation that followed, it was revealed that Nixon had installed a secret tape-recording system in the White House. A legal battle ensued, with Nixon reluctantly agreeing to the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts from what became known as the â€Å"Watergate Tapes.† Mysteriously, there was an 18-minute gap on one of the tapes, which a secretary claimed she had accidentally erased. Impeachment Proceedings and Resignation With the release of the tapes, the House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment proceedings against Nixon. On July 27, 1974, with a vote of 27-11, the Committee voted in favor of bringing articles of impeachment against Nixon. On August 8, 1974, having lost the support of the Republican Party and facing impeachment, Nixon delivered his resignation speech from the Oval Office. At noon the next day, Nixon became the first president in United States history to resign from office. Nixon’s vice president Gerald R. Ford assumed the office of president. On September 8, 1974, Ford granted Nixon a â€Å"full, free and absolute pardon,† ending any chance of an indictment against Nixon. Death After his resignation from office, Nixon retired to San Clemente, California. He wrote both his memoirs and several books on international affairs. With the success of his books, he became somewhat of an authority on American foreign relations, improving his public reputation. Toward the end of his life, Nixon actively campaigned for American support and financial aid for Russia and other former Soviet republics. On April 18, 1994, Nixon suffered a stroke and died four days later at the age of 81. Legacy In his time, Nixon was known for his uneasy public persona and intense secrecy. He is now best remembered for his involvement in the Watergate scandal and his resignation from office, a presidential first. He has been depicted in a variety of dramatic films and documentaries, including Frost/Nixon, Secret Honor, The Assassination of Richard Nixon, and Our Nixon. Sources Ambrose, Stephen E.  Nixon. Simon and Schuster, 1987.Gellman, Irwin F.  The Contender, Richard Nixon: the Congress Years, 1946-1952. Free Press, 1999.

Managing Across Cultures To all managers - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1716 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? The purpose of this report is to provide you with an understanding of the techniques that can be used to maximise the performance of a cross-cultural team. There are many more ideas and way available, nevertheless, the ideas here are a start and will enable you to develop your expertise further. With a cross cultural and diverse team you will have a wide pool of skills with those in your team having a very different understanding of what you expect from them. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Managing Across Cultures To all managers" essay for you Create order With a proactive management approach you can maximise these benefits, including training, planning for and committing to diversity as a core strength. By preparing yourself and using the strategies in this report you will be able to achieve synergy, where the team is greater than the sum of the individuals. Many managers and team members question their ability to manage diversity. When someone is different in looks, language, or actions, people may initially feel uncomfortable and wonder how to communicate. After all, the influences that make people behave and interrelate the way they do are complex, and someone unfamiliar with diversity may feel intimidated or confused. Incorporating training into the workplace, based on awareness and understanding of the issues will enable you to lay the foundation for the effective management of a diverse team. Introduction In todays society with cross-culture and diversity in the workplace, it is certain that your team will be diverse. It is the intention that you be made fully aware of how to manage the various cross-cultural and diverse differences. This report will be providing you with information to enable you to understand: the concept of diversity how to communicate effectively the consequences of failing to manage a cross culture and diverse team effectively how to manage a cross culture and diverse team effectively Your team members commitment will depend on whether they are in the core inside circle or involved at a peripheral level. (Kao and NG, 1992) page 377 The key is engaging the member, whereby you will be able to maximise their productiveness. Many of the suggestions will originate from the Handbook by Harry etcc and Anastasia Bibikova and Vadim Kotelnikov, founder of the Ten3 Business e-Coach training material. The concept of diversity Diversity isnt just about how people look or where they come from, its about differences, but not just differences in gender, race, or class. Diversity encompasses other differences as well for example, in abilities or values and beliefs (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). Some narrowly-focused definitions only refer to diversity in terms of basic personal characteristics. But a true understanding of diversity includes more subtle differences. After all, two people from completely different geographical locations may differ in terms of gender, race, or language, but may share the same beliefs. Alternatively, two similar people of the same gender and community and even working in the same organization can have very different beliefs and values (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). Diversity encompasses all the ways in which people differ. Diversity can bring with it new and relevant approaches to work. Only when you move beyond simply thinking of it in terms of someones cultural ba ckground can you reap the rewards diversity can bring. Think about a great manager whos really motivated you in the past. What comes to mind? Many people describe such managers as fair, respectful, encouraging, objective, clear, and good listeners. The key in a diverse work environment is to be this way with everyone and not only with the team members whom you feel comfortable with. Managing a diverse team requires a commitment to demonstrate these kinds of attitudes and behaviours with everyone on the team. The more you can really connect with each of your team members, the more youll be able to create a highly productive environment. Once youve established your initial approach to managing diversity by building cross-cultural awareness in yourself and your team, you need to use different techniques to maintain the approach. One technique for managing a diverse team is to effective communication. How to communicate effectively Problems in communication can often be a result of cross-cultural issues. Diaz-guerrero has suggested that when people interact culture dictates the priorities in their conversation. Pg 341. There is a requirement to grasp cultural singularities in order for effective communication to be achieved (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). Communicating inclusively is being careful that your language doesnt make anyone feel marginalised. All team members should feel comfortable and know their contributions matter. Listening is one of the most important communication skills. You must listen actively to what your team members have to say to be sure you understand what theyre trying to communicate. You also have to be clear when you communicate. Especially in diverse environments, you need to check to make sure all team members understand you (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). The example below illustrates how a simple hand gesture can be misinterpreted (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). Di fficulties in managing your team can arise with discrepancies between cultures. People from different cultural backgrounds have different understanding of what makes a good manager. They also will have different understandings of situations and appropriate behaviour (Shaw 1990, 380-381) Your automatic response may not be seen as correct in the opinion of someone from another culture. (Shaw 1990, 380-381) It is recommended that you allow yourself to be exposed to other cultures. (Shaw 1990, 380-381) As a manager of a mature team you will have established a common ground of communication and a basis for mutual understanding. (Anderson, 381) In such circumstances the cultural diversity will not be a hindrance to maximise the teams performance. (Graen and Wakabayasia, 1984, 381) The consequences of failing to manage a cross culture and diverse team effectively In the workplace, there are job demands that require a certain degree of conformity. Does that mean everyone should strive to become more similar, especially when they have to work together? Not at all, people can be very diverse and still find common ground (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). Some cultures and particularly those in Asian countries, devalue work and associate physical labour to being in slavery. (Frans Maeh Sali |Desai, 374). But more and more, people understand that all the various groups have a great deal to contribute, and can still retain and even celebrate their differences. This doesnt mean its always easy to manage diversity effectively and if its not managed well, diversity can actually decrease group cohesiveness, making it difficult for teams to benefit from their differences in perspective. A challenge for you is to encourage greater cohesion. If diversity isnt managed well, differences can result in wide-ranging effects on a team: social catego risation in a process known as social categorisation, people may judge team members as like me as part of an ingroup or as different from me as in an outgroup poor communication language differences that arise with diverse teams can result in poor communication that impedes understanding conflict team members may feel discomfort with differences, have attitudes based on stereotypes, or be biased against the unfamiliar, which can all lead to conflict (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). Social categorisation and poor communication often lead to stereotyping. Its common, especially when a new team meets, for members to form opinions about each other based on what they see. They also form opinions on how they expect people to behave. But stereotypes are closed categories that leave no room for individual differences or exceptions, conflict can occur. When people hold preconceived ideas, theyre resistant to ideas or individuals that challenge the stereotype and the person bei ng stereotyped often resents being pigeonholed (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). This emphasises the need for businesses to manage their teams more effectively. Managing a diverse team effectively A team consisting of many cultures is not necessarily a recipe for disaster. (Anderson, 381) Diversity helps to spark creativity, expand horizons, reveals new ways to approach the world, or grow a business. Without diversity in the workplace, companies run the risk of becoming mono cultural, with only one limited perspective. Effectively managing diversity goes beyond respecting the differences between people. Its about putting those differences to work in the best possible way for both the company and your team members Managing diversity in the workplace is more than simple compliance with laws and regulations. Effective diversity management can address issues such as social categorisation, poor communication, and conflict, and create stronger, more cohesive teams. You can reap several benefits from being able to manage diverse teams effectively: encourage greater creativity youll be able to encourage the greater creativity that comes with a diverse team develop high-quality solutions youll be able to harness the potential of diverse teams to make better-qua lity decisions and develop high-quality solutions be a more effective leader youll be seen as a more effective leader who can direct and guide a cohesive team of diverse individuals create job satisfaction for your team members youll create better job satisfaction for your team members, who will then be more motivated to work for you A diverse team thats well managed one thats comfortable communicating all the varying points of view can be more creative. That same creativity can lead to better team decisions and solutions and resulting in a high performance team. Conclusion When you manage a diverse team well, you can inspire them to perform beyond their perceived potential. Youll be seen as a more effective and valued leader as you are able to communicate well with a diverse group of individuals. By showing your team that their needs and interests are important, youll also create better job satisfaction for all. In turn, your team will be more motivated to achieve the results to enhance your position (Bibikova and Kotelnikov, 2010). In a global business environment, it can be a challenge to manage a diverse team effectively. You need to be able to harness all your team members potential to help them improve their performance. Not managing diverse teams effectively can lead to the problems of social categorisation, poor communication, and conflict and the result in loss productivity. There are many benefits to being able to manage a diverse team effectively. Youll be able to encourage greater creativity, come to better team decisions and solutions, be a more effective leader, and have a happier and more motivated team.

Which Meaning of Compensation Seems Most Appropriate from...

Which meaning of compensation seems most appropriate from an employee’s view: Return, reward or entitlement? Compensation and Benefits remain as an invaluable tool to attract, motivate and retain qualified candidates. Compensation refers to the wages and other non-financial forms of compensation that an organisation pay to employees for the work they do. Compensation can be given out to employees in the form of pay, incentives, and benefits for performing their job. A total compensation and benefits package aids the organisation in increasing and maintaining the individual’s and team’s morale, encourage motivation towards peak performance, achieve internal and external equity, and increases employees’ loyalty to the organisation.†¦show more content†¦Financial rewards, especially those given on a regular basis such as bonuses, profit sharing, etc., should be tied to an employees or a groups accomplishments and should be considered pay at risk in o rder to distance them from salary. By doing so, a manager can avoid a sense of entitlement on the part of the employee and ensure that the reward emphasizes excellence or achievement rather than basic competency. Merit pay increases, then, are not part of an employee reward system. Normally, they are an increase for inflation with additional percentages separating employees by competency. They are not particularly motivating since the distinction that is usually made between a good employee and an average one is relatively small. In addition, they increase the fixed costs of a company as opposed to variable pay increases, such as bonuses, which have to be re-earned each year. Finally, in many small businesses teamwork is a crucial element of a successful employees job. Merit increases generally review an individuals job performance, without adequately taking into account the performance within the context of the group or business. Types of Reward Programs include: Variable Pay, Bonu ses, Profit Sharing, Stock Options, Group- based reward systems, Bonuses are generally short-term motivators. By rewarding an employees performance for the previous year, they encourage a short-term perspective rather than future-orientedShow MoreRelatedWage and Salary Chapter 112487 Words   |  50 PagesMilkovich−Newman: Compensation, Eighth Edition Front Matter 1. The Pay Model  © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2004 Chapter One The Pay Model Chapter Outline Compensation: Definition, Please? Society Stockholders Managers Employees Global Views—Vive la diffà ©rence Forms of Pay Cash Compensation: Base Cash Compensation: Merit Pay/ Cost-of-Living Adjustments Cash Compensation: Incentives Long-Term Incentives Benefits: Income Protection Benefits: Work/Life Focus Benefits: Allowances Total EarningsRead MoreCompensation Management9389 Words   |  38 PagesCompensation Management Q1.a. 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Persuasive Communication Theory Free Essays

Persuasive Communication Theory in Social Psychology: A Historical Perspective Icek Ajzen University of Massachusetts – Amherst From M. J. Manfredo (Ed) (1992). We will write a custom essay sample on Persuasive Communication Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now Influencing Human Behavior: Theory and Applications in Recreation and Tourism (pp 1– 27). Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing. Persuasive Communication Theory Page 1 Few subjects in social psychology have attracted as much interest and attention as persuasive communication. One of the first topics to be systematically investigated, persuasion has been the focus of intense research efforts throughout much of social psychology’s brief scientific history. Untold experiments have been conducted to unravel the intricate web of factors that appear to play a role in determining the effectiveness of a persuasive message. These attempts have revealed a degree of complexity that seems to defy explanation and that poses serious obstacles to theory construction. However, recent years have seen considerable progress at the theoretical level and a resurgence of empirical work has done much to invigorate the field and provide a better understanding of the fundamental psychological processes underlying persuasion. To appreciate the significance of these developments we must compare the emerging ideas and research findings with those from earlier efforts. The present chapter is designed to provide the required historical perspective. Since it aims to review developments in our understanding of the persuasion process, emphasis is placed on ideas and theories rather than on methodological or practical concerns; empirical research findings are summarized only in broad outline when needed to make a point of theoretical significance. The solution of problems created by recreation and tourism often involves persuasion in one form or another. As the chapters in the second part of this book illustrate, recreationists must be persuaded to observe rules of safety, to avoid conflicts with other visitors, and to keep their impact on the environment to a minimum. Although social psychologists have rarely tested their ideas in the context of recreation and tourism, the findings and conclusions discussed below have obvious implications for any attempt to influence beliefs, attitudes, and behavior in this domain. THE NATURE OF PERSUASION Persuasive communication involves the use of verbal messages to influence attitudes and behavior. Although the context of persuasion must necessarily be considered, the verbal message, designed to sway the hearts and minds of the receivers, is at the core of persuasive communication. Through a process of reasoning, the message exerts its influence by force of the arguments it contains. As we shall see below, this emphasis on reasoning sets persuasive communication apart from other social influence strategies. Structure of a Message As a general rule, a message consists of three parts: An advocated position, a set of general arguments in support of the advocated position, and specific factual evidence designed to bolster the general arguments (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1981). The advocated position may be a stand on a particular issue (e. g. , support for a tax increase) or a recommended action (e. g. , donating blood). The general arguments will typically supply reasons for adopting the advocated position, and justification for the arguments is provided in the form of factual evidence. Consider the question of instituting a senior comprehensive examination for undergraduate college students. Petty and Cacioppo (1986, pp. 54-59) published some examples of general arguments and supportive evidence they have used in their research program. Among the major arguments contained in Petty and Cacioppo’s messages were the claims that instituting a comprehensive exam raises students’ grade point averages and leads to improvement in the quality of undergraduate teaching. The factual evidence in support of the first argument was formulated as follows (pp. 4-55): The National Scholarship Achievement Board recently revealed the results of a five-year study conducted on the effectiveness of comprehensive exams at Duke University. The results of the study showed that since the comprehensive exam has been introduced at Duke, the grade point average of undergraduates has increased by 31%. At comparable schools without the exams, grades increased by only 8% over the sam e period. The prospect of a comprehensive exam clearly seems to be effective in challenging students to work harder and faculty to teach more effectively. It is likely that the benefits observed at Duke University could also Persuasive Communication Theory Page 2 be observed at other universities that adopt the exam policy. If accepted as valid, the factual evidence should result in acceptance of the argument that instituting a senior comprehensive exam will raise grade point averages, and acceptance of the argument in turn should increase the likelihood that receivers will endorse the position in favor of instituting a comprehensive exam, as advocated in the message. There is, of course, no assurance that receivers of a message will in fact accept the arguments and evidence it contains. On the contrary, identifying the factors and conditions that produce acceptance of information contained in a message is the major purpose of persuasion theory and research. Alternative Influence Strategies In order to develop a better understanding of the nature of persuasion, it is instructive to contrast persuasion with a few alternative influence strategies. The review offered here is far from exhaustive but it will help highlight some critical aspects of persuasive communication. Coercive Persuasion People can be induced to behave in a prescribed way by offering a sizable reward for compliance or by threatening severe punishment for noncompliance. This strategy of change can be very effective in producing the desired behavior, but its effectiveness is contingent on supervision (French and Raven, 1959) and has few lasting effects on beliefs or attitudes. Enduring attitude change by means of coercion is more likely in the context of total institutions, such as prisons, mental hospitals, or prisoner-of-war camps. Situations of this kind enable control over many aspects of an individual’s life for an extended period of time. Even here, however, enduring attitude change is difficult to obtain and often fades after release from the institution (see Schein, 1961). Hypnosis and Subliminal Perception Instead of trying to overcome resistance to change by force of coercion, one can attempt to circumvent conscious opposition by means of hypnosis or presentation of subliminal messages. Posthypnotic induction can be used to instruct individuals upon awakening to engage in specified behaviors or to hold new attitudes (e. . , Rosenberg, 1956). There is, however, some question as to whether hypnosis actually represents an altered state of consciousness that can be used to circumvent people’s usual resistance to manipulation of their beliefs and actions (cf. Barber, 1965; Wagstaff, 1981). Use of subliminal perception to bring about change is similarly problematic. Its effectiveness depends on the presentation of information at an intensity level too low for conscious perception, yet high enough for it to enter unconscious or subconscious awareness. Clearly, such a fine balance demands careful calibration and, given individual differences in perceptual acuity, may not be achievable in a mass communication context. In any event, even when subliminal perception can be demonstrated, its effects on attitudes and behavior tend to be of rather small magnitude (cf. Erdelyi, 1974). Conditioning and Affect Transfer Another way of trying to avoid resistance to change involves the use of conditioning procedures. It has been argued that attitudes can be changed by means of classical conditioning (e. . , Staats and Staats, 1958) and that behavior can be influenced through the systematic use of reinforcements in an instrumental conditional paradigm (e. g. , Krasner, 1958). Since the advantage of conditioning in comparison to direct persuasion rests on the assumed ability of conditioning to operate without awareness of the influence attempt, the extent to which individuals submitted to conditioning form hypotheses about systematic associations created in the conditioning paradigm is of crucial importance. Contrary to earlier claims, it now appears that there is no convincing evidence that adult human beings can be conditioned without awareness (cf. Brewer, 1974). An idea related to classical conditioning has emerged in the recent marketing literature where it has been proposed (Batra and Ray, 1986; Mitchell and Olson, 1981) that positive or negative affect elicited by one stimulus (the advertising) can transfer automatically to an associated stimulus (the advertised brand). This Persuasive Communication Theory Page 3 ffect transfer, however, is assumed to occur only when individuals have no other, more informed basis, for evaluating the brand in question (Shimp, 1981). Moreover, given the results of research on conditioning in human beings, it can be assumed that affect transfer, if it occurs at all, occurs only in the presence of awareness of the contingencies involved. Subterfuge obvious heuristic in a persuasion context has to do with the communicator’s credibility. The posi tion advocated in a message may be accepted if the message comes from a highly credible source but rejected if the source is perceived to lack credibility. When using this rule of thumb, receivers accept or reject the advocated position or action without considering the merits of the arguments contained in the message. Conclusions Whereas the strategies discussed thus far all in one way or another try to prevent or neutralize awareness of, and thus resistance to, the influence attempt, the strategies considered here subtly manipulate the situation in order to promote a psychological state that leads people voluntarily to engage in the desired behavior. The foot-in-the-door technique (Freedman and Fraser, 1966) and other sales ploys are good examples of this approach. When using the footin-the-door technique, a small request SQ acceded to by most individuals SQ is followed by a much larger request. Due presumably to the commitment produced by agreeing to the small request, conformity with the large request tends to increase. An alternative strategy involves first confronting a person with an unreasonably large request and then appearing to compromise by offering compliance with a smaller request. In a highly readable book, Cialdini (1988) describes a number of ways in which subterfuge of this kind can be employed to elicit behaviors that might otherwise not be performed. Subterfuge strategies take advantage of people’s various needs to reciprocate any favor received, to be liked by others, to be consistent, and so forth. Compliance is secured without the benefit of discussing the merits or costs of the requested action. Heuristics We have noted that change by means of persuasive communication is based on a careful deliberation of the pros and cons associated with an advocated position or ction. We shall see in subsequent sections, however, that receivers of a message sometimes make judgments about the advocated position without going through an elaborate reasoning process. Instead, they may rely on heuristics or rules of thumb to arrive at a conclusion (cf. Chaiken, 1980, 1987). The most Our discussion shows that social influence can operate in a variety of ways and th at various strategies are available to take advantage of the different possibilities. Nevertheless, persuasive communication occupies a unique position in the matrix of social influence. Of all the available strategies it is the only one that appeals to reason, attempting to bring about change and compliance by convincing the individual of the validity or legitimacy of the advocated position. This tactic can be much more difficult than, say, coercion, but it also has important advantages. Besides being more compatible with democratic and humanistic values, persuasive communication can produce profound and lasting change, a goal not easily attained by other means. THE PERSUASION CONTEXT No message appears in a vacuum. At a minimum, we can usually identify the source of a message: an editor of a newspaper editorial, a lawyer pleading a client’s case before a jury, or a movie star asking for donations to a charity. The communicator’s identity, however, is only one of the many factors that constitute the context of persuasive communication. Classical analysis (Lasswell, 1948) has divided communication into several distinct aspects that can be summarized as who says what, how, and to whom. More formally these aspects are known as source, message, channel, and receiver factors; together, they constitute the context of 1 persuasion. Source Factors Source factors are observed or inferred characteristics of the communicator. They include biological attributes such as age, race, height, and sex; behavioral features such as Persuasive Communication Theory Page 4 facial expressions, mannerisms, hand and body movements, and the way the communicator is dressed; social properties such as income, power, and social status; and personality traits such as self-confidence and extraversion. The most frequently studied source factors, however, are the communicator’s credibility and attractiveness. Credibility refers to the perceived expertise and trustworthiness of the communicator. In other words, does the communicator have the knowledge to provide an informed opinion on the issue in question and, if so, can he or she be trusted to present all relevant information in an unbiased fashion? As noted earlier, persuasion is generally assumed to increase with credibility. It has similarly been proposed that the amount of change is influenced by the attractiveness or likability of the source, whether attractiveness is defined in terms of physical features or psychological and behavioral characteristics. Receiver Factors On the opposite end of the communication context, parallel to source factors, are characteristics of the receiver or audience to whom the message is addressed. These characteristics include the receivers’ personality traits, sex, social status, intelligence, involvement, and so forth. Any attribute of the audience, or combination of attributes, may provide a context that contributes to the effectiveness of the message. Channel Factors The context of the message is also defined by the means used to communicate it. Information can be communicated face-to-face, in writing, or by way of an audio tape or video tape. Note that although it is possible to hold the content of the message (the general arguments and factual evidence) constant across channels, different modes of communication will often vary in terms of some of the context factors. For instance, the audience obtains more information about physical and behavioral characteristics of the source from face-to-face or video messages than when the information is presented in written or oral form. Thus, it may be difficult in some instances to determine whether differences in persuasion are due to variations in the communication channel or to associated contextual differences that may confound the observed effect. Message Factors Potential confounding of a more serious kind can occur in the case of message factors because variations message features are often accompanied by differences in content. Message factors concern the ways in which information is communicated to the audience. Among the factors that have been considered are the order in which arguments are presented, one- versus twosided presentations, and emotional versus nonemotional appeals (e. g. , humorous messages or messages that arouse fear versus neutral messages). To see why variations in message characteristics are often confounded with differences in message content, consider the case of one- versus two-sided communications. Clearly, to present both sides of an issue, an effective message must contain information and arguments not contained in a message that supports only the advocated position. In a twosided message, the communicator mentions arguments that could be used to support the opposite side and then proceeds to refute those arguments. In addition, of course, the communicator also discusses the arguments in favor of the position advocated in the message. Only this part is the same as or similar to the one-sided message. In the case of emotional versus neutral appeals, problems of confounding occur because humorous or fear-arousing communications generally contain information and arguments specifically designed to generate these emotions. It is thus difficult to separate the effects of fear or humor from the effects due to differences in the information contained in humorous versus nonhumorous messages or in high- versus lowfear messages. Situational Factors The persuasion context contains several situational variables that do not fit easily into the traditional framework of source, message, channel, and receiver factors. Among these situational variables are distraction and forewarning. Distraction can be the result of environmental noise, or it can be internal as when a person is preoccupied with other concerns. Forewarning refers to the availability Persuasive Communication Theory Page 5 of information before exposure to the message, which warns the receiver either that an influence attempt is imminent or that the communicator is planning to advocate a certain position. In either case, forewarning may prepare receivers to rally their defenses against the forthcoming message. The Hovland Tradition Scientific work on persuasive communication began in earnest during World War II in an attempt to determine the effects of war-time propaganda (Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield, 1949). This was followed by a period of intensive experimental research at Yale University in the 1950s under the direction of Carl Hovland (Hovland, Janis, and Kelley, 1953; Sherif and Hovland, 1961). Although it was extremely prolific and highly influential, the program of research initiated by the Hovland group produced very few generalizable conclusions. By the late 1960s, disappointment with this approach had become widespread (see Eagly and Himmelfarb, 1974; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). In this section we review the major lines of work in the Hovland tradition and consider some of the reasons for its failure. Theoretical Orientation The empirical work of the Hovland group was guided by a loose theoretical analysis based on learning principles, and by a conceptual framework that incorporated context variables (source, message, channel, and receiver factors), target variables (immediate attitude change, retention, behavior change), and mediating processes (attention, comprehension, and acceptance) (see McGuire, 1969, 1985). Very briefly, the theoretical analysis assumed that attitude change involves learning a new response to a given stimulus (the attitude object). Exposure to a persuasive message suggests the new response (the advocated position) and provides an opportunity to practice the response. The various contextual factors were assumed to facilitate learning by reinforcing and firmly embedding the new response in the receiver’s response hierarchy. Empirical Research The conceptual framework of context, target, and mediating variables served to organize thinking about the persuasion process. However, much of the empirical research in the Hovland tradition dealt primarily with the impact of contextual factors. Thus, in the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of studies were conducted to examine the effects of source credibility and attractiveness; receiver intelligence, self-esteem, and involvement; fear appeals and order of presentation; distraction and forewarning; and a multitude of other contextual variables (see McGuire, 1985 for a recent review). Little attention was devoted to the dependent variable that serves as the target of the communication, although persistence of change over time was an early concern (see Cook and Flay, 1978). Of the mediating variables, only attention and comprehension were directly assessed. Thus, many studies contained a recall or recognition test to measure the degree to which the message was â€Å"received† (McGuire, 1968), that is, the degree to which the message was attended to and comprehended. Generally speaking, the purpose of the test was to make sure that reception did not vary across conditions of the experiment, and that whatever effects were observed could not be attributed to differences in reception. In other words, the goal was usually to rid the experiment of the mediating effect of reception, rather than to study reception in its own right. Note also that the conceptual framework had little to say about the content of persuasive communication and what its role in the persuasion process might be. Message content was treated largely as a given, while the questions addressed had to do with the effects of contextual factors on the amount of change produced by the message in question. We shall see below that this approach to the study of persuasive communication was one of the major reasons for the failure of the Hovland tradition. Effects of source factors. One of the first lines of research initiated by the Hovland group dealt with the effects of communicator credibility (Hovland and Weiss, 1951), and innumerable studies since have manipulated this variable. Of all the contextual factors studied in the Hovland tradition, variations in source credibility have produced the most consistent findings. By and large, communicators high in expertise and trustworthiness tend to be more persuasive than communicators with low standing on these factors. However, even here, some Persuasive Communication Theory Page 6 contradictory evidence has been reported. Source credibility does not always increase the amount of change, and in some situations it can even have a negative effect (cf. McGuire, 1985, p. 263). Other source characteristics are generally found to have no simple or easily predictable effects on persuasion. The communicator’s attractiveness, education, intelligence, social status, and so on can serve as cues for inferring expertise and can thus affect persuasion. However, these indirect effects do not appear to be strong enough to produce consistent results across different investigations. Effects of receiver factors. Age, gender, intelligence, self-esteem and other individual differences among receivers are rarely found to have strong effects on persuasion, and the results of different investigations are often inconsistent. Moreover, receiver factors are found to interact in complex ways with each other and with additional factors such as the complexity of the message, the type of arguments used, the credibility of the communicator, and so on. Effects of channel factors. A rather discouraging picture also emerged with respect to the effects of the medium of communication. While visual messages tend to be better liked and attended to than spoken or written messages, recall is sometimes better for written material, and adding pictures to print can be distracting (see McGuire, 1985, p. 283). In light of these contradictory effects, it is hardly surprising that empirical research on channel factors has produced largely inconsistent results. Effects of message factors. Some of the most complex patterns of findings are associated with message factors such as emotional versus nonemotional appeals, message style, and ordering of message content. With respect to the latter, consider for example whether one should state the message’s basic position at the outset or at the end. Stating it at the beginning may have the advantage of clarity, making the source appear more trustworthy, and of attracting the attention of receivers sympathetic to the advocated position. It can also have the disadvantage, however, of lowering interest and antagonizing receivers initially opposed to the advocated position (McGuire, 1985). Other message factors can have equally complicated effects. To illustrate, consider the degree to which the message arouses fear or concern. Contrary to expectations, initial research (Janis and Feshbach, 1953) showed a low-fear message to be more effective than a high-fear message in producing compliance with recommended dental practices. Later research, however, has often found the opposite effect, and many investigations have reported no differences between high- and low-fear messages (for reviews, see Boster and Mongeau, 1985 and Higbee, 1969). Similarly inconsistent findings have emerged with respect to the effects of humor in persuasive communication (see Markiewicz, 1974). Retrospective In light of largely inconsistent research findings concerning the effects of contextual variables, many investigators became discouraged with the Hovland approach. Thus, after editing a book on attitude change in 1974, Himmelfarb and Eagly reached the following pessimistic conclusions: After several decades of research, there are few simple and direct empirical generalizations that can be made concerning how to change attitudes. In fact, one of the most salient features of recent research is the great number of studies demonstrating that the empirical generalizations of earlier research are not general, but contingent on conditions not originally apparent. (Himmelfarb and Eagly, 1974, p. 94. ) In fact, the complexity of the persuasion process noted by Himmelfarb and Eagly in their reference to contingencies has been a favorite explanation for the failure of the Hovland approach. This explanation holds that persuasion is influenced by so many different factors interacting with each other that only complicated, multidimensional research strategies can cope with the complexities. However, when investigators have studied higher-order interactions, no clear or replicable patterns have emerged. Indeed, there is serious doubt that the search for complicated interactions can ever be a viable strategy (cf. Cronbach, 1975; Nisbett, 1977). The role of the receiver. Besides failing to advance our understanding of the persuasion process, the complexity explanation had the Persuasive Communication Theory Page 7 unfortunate effect of hiding the basic shortcomings of the Hovland tradition and thus delaying the search for alternatives. As is usually the case, realizing where this approach went wrong is much easier in retrospect than it was at the time. Perhaps without meaning to, the Hovland group cast the receiver in a rather passive role whose task was to â€Å"learn† the information and recommended position presented in a message. Attention and comprehension would assure that the information was absorbed, and persuasion would thus follow automatically. This view of the receiver stands in clear contradiction to much that is known about information processing. People are far from passive receivers of information. Instead, they usually act on the information that is available, integrating it (Anderson, 1971), constructing interpretations of their own (Neisser, 1976), and going in many ways beyond the information given (Bruner, 1957). This is just as true in the domain of attitudes as it is in other areas of information processing. For example, research on impression formation has shown that people draw far-ranging inferences about the attributes of another person on the basis of very limited information (Asch, 1946; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Wiggins, 1973). Such inferences are often said to rely on â€Å"implicit theories of personality† (Schneider, 1973) which might suggest, among other things, that if a person is said to be hostile, he is also likely to be rash, aggressive, and inconsiderate. Several other lines of research demonstrate more directly the potential importance of inference processes in persuasive communication. Thus it has been shown that a persuasive communication designed to produce a change in one belief will also lead to changes in other, related, beliefs (McGuire, 1960a; Wyer and Goldberg, 1970). It is even possible to produce change by merely making people aware of inconsistencies among their beliefs or values (McGuire, 1960b; Rokeach, 1971) in a process McGuire has termed the â€Å"Socratic† effect: After reviewing their beliefs, people tend to change some of them in the direction of increased logical consistency. In short, there is every reason to expect that receivers exposed to a persuasive communication may engage in an active process of deliberation that involves reviewing the information presented, accepting some rguments, rejecting others, and drawing inferences about issues addressed that go beyond what was mentioned in the original message. The image of the passive learner fostered in the Hovland tradition is thus highly misleading, and misses the most important aspect of persuasive communication: the receiver’s capacity for reasoning and for being swayed by the merits of a well-presented argument. Persuasion by the Peripheral Route The passive-learne r view of the receiver implicit in the Hovland approach quite naturally led to a focus on the persuasion context. If the communicator’s task is to make sure that receivers learn and absorb the contents of the message, concern turns to a search for conditions that facilitate attention to the message and comprehension of its arguments, with a concomitant lessening of interest in what the receiver does with the information that is received. Ironically, recent theory and research have established the potential importance of contextual factors, at least under certain wellspecified conditions. Once we realize what these conditions are, we can begin to understand the reasons for the inconsistent findings of research conducted within the Hovland paradigm. In the previous section we emphasized the active role of the receiver who may engage in an elaborate process of reasoning about the merits of the arguments presented in the message. This view assumes, first, that receivers are in fact sufficiently motivated to exert the required cognitive effort and, second, that they have the ability to carefully process the incoming information. It now appears that contextual factors influence persuasion only when one or both of these conditions are not met (Chaiken, 1980; Petty and Cacioppo, 1981, 1986). Motivation to process the message and elaborate on it is largely a matter of the receiver’s involvement. Different aspects of the self may be activated in a given situation, depending largely on the issue addressed, and as a result, different kinds of involvement can be generated. Specifically, the message may create involvement by dealing with receivers’ enduring values, with receivers’ ability to obtain desirable outcomes or avoid undesirable outcomes, or with the impression receivers make on others Persuasive Communication Theory Page 8 (Johnson and Eagly, 1989). However, when the message has few implications for enduring values, for important outcomes, or for selfpresentation, it produces little motivation to carefully deliberate its contents. Ability to process a message is related to factors internal to the receiver as well as to external factors. Among the internal factors are familiarity with the issues and cognitive ability and intelligence, factors that tend to increase capacity for information processing; and preoccupation with other matters and lack of time, which tend to reduce the ability to elaborate. External factors that increase the ability to process include message repetition and clarity of presentation, while external distraction and use of complicated language can reduce processing ability. Some of the contextual factors studied by the Hovland group can come into play when internal or external factors lower the receiver’s ability to process the information presented in the message. Empirical Research When ability and motivation to process the message are low, receivers can use peripheral cues (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986) or cognitive heuristics (Chaiken, 1980) to form their opinions. Chaiken assumed that receivers of a message, even if they are not very greatly involved, nevertheless are motivated to hold a â€Å"correct† view on the issue. Since, under conditions of low motivation and ability, receivers are either incapable or unwilling to deal with the merits of the advocated position, they look for contextual or peripheral cues that might provide a basis for forming an opinion. Perhaps the most powerful such cue is the communicator’s credibility, and it may be argued that this is the reason for the relatively consistent findings associated with communicator credibility. The heuristic strategy might in this case involve the following line of reasoning: â€Å"If this expert on the matter says so, it must be right. † This heuristic appears quite reasonable in that it accepts the position advocated by a credible source, even if one has not carefully scrutinized the arguments presented. Receivers can also use the source’s attractiveness, or factors related to the message such as the number of arguments it contains, as peripheral cues. Thus, a message coming from a iked source might be viewed as more trustworthy, and one that contains many arguments (even if specious) might be seen as more reliable than a message that contains few arguments. Note, however, that these rules of thumb are far less convincing as a rational basis for accepting or rejecting an advocated position, and it is perhaps for this reason that factors of this kind often fail to have strong or consistent effects on persuasion. In any event, relying on heuristics obviates th e need for careful message processing, and at the same time provides a basis for adoption of a position on the issue. Recent empirical research tends to support this view of the peripheral route to persuasion, although some complications have recently been noted (Johnson and Eagly, in press). Since excellent reviews are available elsewhere (Chaiken, 1987; Petty and Cacioppo, 1986), we limit our discussion here to an example concerning the effects of source characteristics. Recall that communicator attractiveness was one of the source characteristics studied in the Hovland paradigm that did not have a clear and consistent effect on persuasion. If treated as a peripheral cue used only when processing motivation or ability is low, more consistent findings tend to emerge. Attractiveness of the source has been varied by attributing the message to famous versus unknown individuals (Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann, 1983) or to a likable versus an unlikable person (Chaiken, 1980). The investigators also manipulated the degree of involvement and found, as expected, that communicator attractiveness has a significantly greater effect on persuasion under low than under high involvement. Conclusions Work on the peripheral route to persuasion suggests that the source, message, channel, and receiver factors studied in the Hovland tradition can indeed influence the effectiveness of a message, but that this is likely to be the case only under conditions of low motivation or low ability to process the message. Such conditions can be obtained in the psychological laboratory that ensures some degree of attention by a captive audience even if the receivers have little interest in the topic or lack the ability to process the information presented (Hovland, 1959). In more naturalistic field settings, receivers who Persuasive Communication Theory Page 9 lack the motivation or ability to process a message can usually leave the situation, while those who remain and are exposed to the message will tend to be sufficiently involved and able to process the information it contains. Persuasion by the peripheral route is clearly an inappropriate model for many realistic situations, and it is often inapplicable even in the artificial context of the laboratory. REASONING AND PERSUASION Even when it works, there is something distinctly unsatisfactory in the demonstration of change via the peripheral route, because the change brought about does not represent persuasion as we usually think of it. We noted at the beginning that it is the process of reasoning, the evaluation of the merits of arguments in favor and opposed to the advocated position, that is at the heart of persuasive communication. Persuasion involves more than simply oing along with an expressed point of view because of the presence of some peripheral cue; it requires that the advocated position be accepted only after careful scrutiny of the message and after application of whatever other information the receiver can bring to bear. Moreover, change produced by the peripheral route is generally of little practical significance. Petty and Cacioppo (1986) noted that peripheral attitude change tends to be shortlived, tends to be susceptible to counterpropaganda (McGuire, 1964), and tends to have little effect on actual behavior. Clearly then, from both a theoretical and a practical point of view it would be to our advantage to focus less on the context of persuasion and more on the central processes that occur when a person is exposed to a message. Persuasion by the Central Route In the remainder of this chapter we examine persuasion that occurs when the receiver of a message is sufficiently able and motivated to give at least some scrutiny to the contents of the communication and to evaluate the merits of the arguments it contains. This has been termed the central route to persuasion (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981) and the deliberations receivers perform are known as systematic information processing (Chaiken, 1980). Instead of asking what makes a given message more effective, we must now ask how to construct an effective message. That is, what arguments, when systematically processed via the central route, will have the greatest impact on the receiver’s attitudes and behavior? Before we can review what is known about this question, however, we must consider the role of the receiver in greater detail. The Elaboration Likelihood Model. The peripheral route to persuasion discussed earlier is one of two tracks a receiver can take in Petty and Cacioppo’s (1981, 1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM). The second track is persuasion via the central route. According to the ELM, central route persuasion depends on and is determined by the degree to which receivers elaborate on the information presented in the message. Briefly, during exposure to a persuasive communication, receivers are assumed to generate arguments of their own, either in support of the advocated position (pro arguments) or opposed to it (con arguments). These cognitive responses determine the direction and degree of change in attitudes and behavior. Increased motivation and ability to process the information in the message is, according to the model, associated with an increase in the number of cognitive responses (pro and con arguments) generated. To the extent that the number of arguments generated on the pro side exceeds the number of arguments on the con side, the receiver will change in the advocated direction. When elaboration leads to the production of more con than pro arguments, however, either no change or a â€Å"boomerang effect† (change in the opposite direction) may occur. From the communicator’s point of view, therefore, motivation and ability to elaborate on message content is a two-edged sword. If, on balance, the thoughts generated by the receiver favor the advocated position, then the central route to persuasion works to the communicator’s advantage. On the other hand, if the receiver’s cognitive responses consist predominantly of counterarguments, then elaboration on message content can be quite detrimental to the communicator’s purpose. A number of studies, summarized in Petty and Cacioppo (1986), have examined the role of cognitive responses in the persuasion process. In these studies, cognitive responses are elicited Persuasive Communication Theory Page 10 in a free-response format following exposure to the message. The thoughts listed by the receivers are coded as either in favor or opposed to the advocated position, and the number of responses of each type is determined. Results, by and large, support the idea that the production of cognitive responses increases with motivation and ability to elaborate. Moreover, it is also found that changes in attitudes and behavior are consistent with the pattern of cognitive responses that are generated: a balance of thoughts in favor of the advocated position tends to be associated with change in the desired direction. 2 Yielding and Impact. Consideration of cognitive responses generated by receivers in the course of exposure to the message is, however, not sufficient to account for observed changes in attitudes and behavior. For change to occur in the central mode, some of the receiver’s fundamental beliefs and values must undergo modification. Elaboration on the message may in fact lead to changes in cognitive structure, but evidence for the production of pro- or counter-arguments does not, in itself, assure that such changes have indeed taken place. Work on the elaboration likelihood model has focused primarily on cognitive responses to the message and has not dealt directly with changes in cognitive structure. The ideas discussed below are based on other recent work concerning persuasive communication via the central route (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, 1981). According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a message can bring about changes in a receiver’s cognitive structure in one of two ways. First, in a process termed yielding, acceptance of arguments presented in the message can produce changes in corresponding beliefs held by the receiver. Consider, for example, a pregnant smoker who initially is not aware that cigarette smoking can adversely affect the health of her unborn baby. This woman is now exposed to a message containing an argument and supportive evidence that establish the link between smoking and adverse health effects on the fetus. To the extent that the argument is accepted, it produces yielding in the sense that the woman’s cognitive structure now contains a new belief that corresponds directly to the argument in question. That is, she now believes, as stated in the message, that smoking may have ill effects on her unborn baby. Changes in a receiver’s primary beliefs, however, can extend far beyond the information directly contained in the message. Such changes that go beyond the information given are termed impact effects. To illustrate, the pregnant woman exposed to the message that smoking can have detrimental health effects on her fetus may infer that she would feel guilty if she did not stop smoking and that her doctor would want her to quit, even though neither argument was explicit in the message. It is also possible, however, for her to draw inferences that would work against the aims of the communicator. For example, the woman may unexpectedly form the belief that quitting would be even worse than continued smoking because it would result in overeating. These impact effects can, of course, play a major role in the woman’s decision to quit or not to quit smoking. Evidence for the importance of considering yielding as well as impact effects can be found in a study on drinking reported in Ajzen and Fishbein (1980, pp. 218-242). Persuasive Argumentation The challenge facing a communicator trying to produce change via the central route is to create a message that will originate favorable responses, produce yielding to its arguments, and generate impact effects in accordance with the advocated change. Arguments contained in a message can be considered effective to the extent that they influence the receiver’s cognitive structure. The essential question, therefore, is what makes an argument effective. In light of the fact that rhetoricians have written about argumentation for over 2,000 years, it is surprising how little empirical knowledge is available about the relative effectiveness of different types of arguments (McGuire, 1985). An analysis of this problem reveals at least three important aspects of an argument’s effectiveness: novelty, strength, and relevance. Below we discuss each of these aspects in turn. Argument Novelty Persuasive Communication Theory Page 11 An argument contained in a message may well be accepted (i. e. , believed to be true), but if the receiver already held the belief in question before exposure to the message, no change in belief structure would result (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1981). To be effective therefore, an argument contained in a message must not be part of the receiver’s initial belief system. Some empirical evidence for this proposition can be found in research on group decision making (Vinokur and Burnstein, 1974). In the course of group discussions, members who offer novel arguments in support of a given decision alternative are found to be more influential than members who raise points that are well known to the rest of the group. Argument Strength Besides being novel, an argument must also be strong if it is to sway the receiver to adopt the advocated position. A strong argument is one that tends to produce agreement (positive thoughts) and does not encourage generation of many counterarguments (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986). Although it is not clear what makes a strong argument, its strength or weakness can be empirically established. Earlier in this chapter we gave an illustrative example of a persuasive argument taken from Petty and Cacioppo’s (1986) research program. The argument asserted that instituting a senior comprehensive examination would raise grade point averages (see p. xx). This argument and the associated evidence make a strong case for the advocated position. Compare this to the following argument, also designed to generate support for a comprehensive exam. The National Scholarship Achievement Board recently revealed the results of a study they conducted on the effectiveness of comprehensive exams at Duke University. One major finding was that student anxiety had increased by 31%. At comparable schools without the exam, anxiety increased by only 8%. The Board reasoned that anxiety over the exams, or fear of failure, would motivate students to study more in their courses while they were taking them. It is likely that this increase in anxiety observed at Duke University would also be observed and be of benefit at other universities that adopt the exam policy (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986, p. 57). Although this argument is quite similar in structure to the strong argument presented earlier, it appears to present a much weaker case. In fact, this argument is typically found to generate many counterarguments. Clearly, in order to create an effective message, it is in the communicator’s interest to select strong arguments and avoid including arguments that tend to elicit negative thoughts about the advocated position. Argument Relevance Related to the question of an argument’s strength is its relevance to the advocated position. An argument may be strong in the sense that it generates few counterarguments and many pro arguments, but if it addresses an issue that is not directly relevant to the advocated position, it may fail to produce the desired effect. This point is often not sufficiently appreciated. Suppose a communicator would like to convince students to attend an anti-apartheid demonstration in Washington, D. C. , and thus exposes the students to a persuasive message against apartheid in South Africa. Although the arguments contained in the message may be strong in the sense that they are believable and generate few counterarguments, the message may not be very effective as a means of inducing students to go to Washington. To make the message more relevant in terms of this goal, one would have to include strong arguments that deal more directly with the advantages of attending the planned demonstration. A relevant argument, then, is one that changes those primary beliefs of the receiver that are directly related to the target of the influence attempt, that is, to the attitude or behavior the communicator wishes to affect. Different target variables are based on different primary beliefs, and an effective message must be tailored to fit the target in question. General discussions of different target variables and their respective foundations of primary beliefs can be found in Fishbein and Ajzen (1975, 1981) and in Fishbein and Manfredo (Chapter xx, this volume). It is beyond the scope of this chapter to provide an in-depth review. Briefly, Fishbein and Ajzen distinguish Persuasive Communication Theory Page 12 among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors as possible targets of a persuasive communication. To effect a change in any one of these target variables, the message arguments must be directed at the primary beliefs that provide the basis for the target in question. The first step in the construction of a message, therefore, requires a decision about the relevant primary beliefs, a process that cannot be left to intuition but must be guided by a model of the target’s determinants. Social psychologists have discussed a variety of approaches to understanding beliefs and attitudes and their relations to behavior, but perhaps the most popular models can be found within the framework of the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) and its recent extension, the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1988). The discussion below considers each target variable in turn; however, a full understanding of the process is gained only by considering the relations among the different variables. Changing behavior. According to the theory of reasoned action, many behaviors of interest to social psychologists are under volitional control and, hence, are in an immediate sense determined by the intention to perform the behavior in question. A successful persuasive communication designed to change a certain behavior must therefore contain arguments that will bring about a change in the antecedent intention. The theory of planned behavior oes beyond the question of intended action, taking into account the possibility that the behavior of interest may not be completely under volitional control. To be successful, the message may have to provide information that will enable the receiver to gain volitional control and overcome potential obstacles to performance of the behavior. A review of evidence in suppo rt of these propositions can be found in Ajzen (1988). Changing intentions. The antecedents of behavioral intentions are, according to the theory of reasoned action, the person’s attitude toward the behavior and his or her subjective norm. The attitude toward the behavior refers to the evaluation of the behavior as desirable or undesirable, and the subjective norm is the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior in question. The theory of planned behavior again adds to this model a consideration of volitional control. When issues of control arise, intentions are influenced not only by attitudes and subjective norms but also by perceived behavioral control (Ajzen and Madden, 1986; Schifter and Ajzen, 1985). A persuasive communication designed to influence intentions (and thus also behavior) can be directed at one or more of the intention’s three determinants: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Changing attitudes. We arrive at the level of primary beliefs as we consider the determinants of a person’s attitudes. According to the theory of reasoned action, attitudes are a function of salient beliefs about the attitude object (a person, group, institution, behavior or other event). Each salient belief links the object to an attribute or to an outcome in the case of a behavior. The attitude is determined by the strength of these beliefs and by the evaluations associated with the attributes (Fishbein, 1963; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Beliefs about the attitude object that are salient prior to presentation of the message can be elicited in a free-response format. The message is then constructed such that it will either change some of the existing beliefs, either in their strength or their evaluations, or introduce new beliefs into the belief system. Changing beliefs. To change a specific belief on an issue, the persuasive communication has to address some of the information on which the belief is based. Several probabilistic models that link prior information to a given belief have been proposed and validated (McGuire, 1960b; Wyer and Goldberg, 1970; for a review see Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein, 1977). These models suggest that the information introduced by the persuasive communication must be information from which the belief in question can be probabilistically inferred. Conclusions The focus in recent years on the central route to persuasion holds great promise for a better understanding of persuasive communication. This route deals with the essence of the persuasion process, with changes in the fundamental beliefs on which the receivers’ attitudes and actions are based. Although much remains to be done, social psychologists have gained considerable insight into some of the cognitive processes that are at work during and Persuasive Communication Theory Page 13 after exposure to a persuasive communication, and into the practical aspects of constructing an effective message. SUMMARY This chapter provided a brief historical perspective on persuasive communication theory in social psychology. No attempt was made to discuss all theoretical developments in detail as this task would require a book in itself. Instead, the focus was on a few dominant lines of theoretical development, from the beginnings of scientific research on persuasion in the 1940s to the present day. The work initiated by Hovland and his associates tended to view the receivers of a persuasive communication as passively learning the information presented and then changing their beliefs and attitudes accordingly. This view led to a concern with contextual factors, and virtual neglect of the contents of the communication and its processing by the receiver. Few generalizable conclusions emerged from the research guided by this approach, and by the late 1960s the failure of the Hovland approach was widely acknowledged. Progress was recorded when attention turned from contextual or peripheral factors to persuasion via the central route. Contextual factors were found to be important only under conditions of low involvement or low ability to process the message. It was discovered, however, as a general rule, that receivers of a message are far from passive, engaging in an active process of analyzing and elaborating on the information presented. It became clear that the effects of a persuasive communication could not be understood unless careful attention was given to these cognitive processes. Theoretical and empirical developments of the past two decades have enabled us to consider receivers’ cognitive responses during exposure to a message, yielding to the arguments contained in the message, and the message’s impact on other beliefs not explicitly mentioned. These developments have also resulted in a much closer examination of the contents of persuasive communications, with an eye toward selecting arguments that will have the maximum effect on the target of the influence attempt. 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